Description of Italy

Memoirs of Napoleon: The Campaign of Italy, First Chapter

Memoirs of Napoleon

The Campaign of Italy

First Chapter

I. Of Italy. — II. Of the Alps. — III. Of the Apennines. — IV. Of the great plain of Italy. — Of the Po valley and the valleys whose waters throw themselves into the Adriatic, north and south of the Po. — V. Borders of Italy from the side of land. — Lines that cover the Po valley. — VI. Capitals of Italy. — VII. Maritime means of Italy. — VIII. Situation of the various powers of Italy in 1796.

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I. Of Italy.

Italy is surrounded by the Alps and by the sea. Its natural limits are determined by as much precision as if it were an island. It lies between the 36th and the 46th degree of latitude, the 4th and the 16th of longitude of Paris. It is composed of three parts: the continental, the peninsula, and the islands. The first is separated from the second by the isthmus of Parma. If from Parma, as center point, you trace a half-circumference from the side of the north with a radius equal to the distance of Parma to the mouths of the Var or the mouth of the Isonzo (60 leagues), you will have traced the development of the superior chain of the Alps, which separates Italy from the continent. This half-circle forms the territory of the part called continental, whose surface is of 5,000 square leagues. The peninsula is a trapezium lying between the continental part in the north, the Mediterranean in the east, the Adriatic in the west, the Ionian Sea in the south, whose main two sides have 200 to 210 leagues of length, and the two other sides from 60 to 30 leagues; its surface is of 6,000 square leagues. Its third part, or the islands, namely, Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica, which geographically belongs more to Italy than to France, forms a surface of 4,000 square leagues; which brings the surface of all Italy to 15,000 square leagues.

Here are considered the natural limits without delving into any political division. Hence are not included neither Savoy, which is beyond the Alps, neither Dalmatia, neither Istria, and is included the part of the Swiss-Italian bailiwicks which are on this side of the Alps, and the whole part of Tyrol that pours its waters into the Adige is on this side of the Brenner; all of this, besides, causes little changes. On the side of the east, the boundary is placed at the Isonzo, albeit the natural division of the mountains would pass between the Laybach and the Isonzo, would include a portion of Carniola and of Istria and would join the Adriatic at Fiume; but at the Isonzo the mountains of the Alps lower themselves and become of lesser consideration.

Thus Italy has merely 150 leagues of borders with the European continent, and these 150 leagues are fortified by the strongest barrier that can be opposed to men: the highest mountains of Europe, which defend eternal snows and steep rocks.

The population of the continental part is of 7 million souls, that of the peninsula of 8 million, and that of the islands of 2,300,000. The total population of Italy is of 17 to 18 million inhabitants.

The ancients divided Italy in three parts: Cisalpine Gaul, which included all the continental part; it was confined by the Rubicon on the eastern side and by the Magra on the western side; Italy strictly speaking included Tuscany, the Roman states, and a part of the Kingdom of Naples; finally Great-Greece, or the southern part of the peninsula. The first part was inhabited by the Gauls; those of Autun founded Milan six hundred years before Christ; those of the Loire, Cremona and Mantua. The second part was inhabited by the Italians properly speaking, and the third by the Greek colonies. Under Augustus, one could count 4,600,000 Roman citizens inhabiting Italy.

II. Of The Alps.

The Alps are the biggest mountains of Europe; they separate Italy from the continent. A great number of passes traverse them; however only a few are used by armies, travelers, and commerce. At 1,400 toises of elevation we can no longer find any sign of vegetation; at an even greater height men breathe and live arduously; at 1,600 toises are the glaciers and the mountains of eternal snows whence rivers come out from all directions and throw themselves into the Po, the Rhone, the Rhine, the Danube, or the Adriatic. The part of the Alps which pours its waters into the Po and the Adriatic belongs to Italy; that which pours into the Rhone belongs to France; that which pours into the Rhine and the Danube to Germany. The Rhone receives the waters from all the slopes of the Alps on the side of France and of Switzerland, from the Saint-Gothard to the Argentière pass, and brings them to the Mediterranean; the Cagne and the Argens that throw themselves near Hyères, do not have their sources in the Alps, but in the hills of Provence. All the waters of the Alps are stopped by the Durance and its affluents, which throw themselves into the Rhone.

Switzerland lies entirely in the Alps, between the Rhone, Rhine and Jura rivers; it's an area of 2,600 square leagues, covered with large mountains, filled with lakes and valleys, the two main ones being those of the Aar and the Limmat. The waters of Switzerland flow into the Rhine or Rhone, none of them into the Danube. It is separated from the Po valley by the Rhone valley, which is the high range, and that which separates that one from the Rhine valley.

The waters of the Cadoric, Julian, and Doric Alps flow into the Danube either through perpendicular valleys, such as those of the Iller, Lech, Isar, Inn and Enns, or through transversal valleys; after flowing parallel to the Danube, they eventually flow into it, such as the Drava and Mur. It follows that the plains of Germany are separated from the plains of Italy, or the valley of the Danube from the valley of the Po, 1) by the high ranges of the Alps which dominate Italy and from which the waters flow on one side into the Po and the Adriatic, and on the other into the Drava: 2) by the range which separates the valley of the Mur from the valley of the Danube.

All the valleys fall perpendicularly from the summit of the Alps into the Po or the Adriatic, and there is is transverse or parallel valley; hence the Alps on the Italian side form an amphitheater that ends at the upper range. By guarding the outlets of all these valleys, one guards the entire border. The mountain overlooking the Tende pass is 1,400 toises high; Mont Viso, 1,545 toises; Mont Genèvre, 1,700 toises; the Pic Saint-Michel on Mont Cenis, 1,795 toises; Mont Blanc, 2,450 toises; Mont Rose, 2,300 toises; the Pic de Gletscherberg on the Saint-Gothard, 1,900 toises; and Mont Brenner, 1,250 toises. These peaks dominate the semi-circumference of the high Alps and, seen from the Italian plains, appear like ice giants defending the entrance to this beautiful land.

The Alps are divided into the Maritime, Cottian, Greek, Pennine, Rhaetian, Cadorian, Nordic and Julian Alps. The Maritime Alps separate the Po valley from the sea, forming a second barrier on this side.

The Var, Cottian and Greek Alps separate Italy from France; the Pennine Alps separate Italy from Switzerland; the Rhaetian Alps from Tyrol; the Cadorian and Julian Alps from Austria; the Nordic Alps form a second line, dominating the Drava and Mur rivers.

The Maritime Alps begin at Mount Ariolo, eight leagues from the Mediterranean, near Savona; they run parallel to the sea for twenty-five leagues to the Argentière pass, where the Cottian Alps begin. The county of Nice sits on the seaward side of the Alps. The main and busiest passes are the Ardente pass and the Tende pass, 897 toises above sea level. The torrents that flow from the maritimes Alps are: the Arrosia; the Taggia, which descends from the Monte Grande and flows into the sea near Albenga; the Taggia; which descends from the Ardente pass and has its mouth near San-Remo; the Roja, which descends from the Tende pass and ends at Ventimiglia, after twelve leagues, and the Var, which descends from Mount Pelouze, near the Argentière pass, meanders for twenty-two leagues and reaches the sea between Nice and Antibes, forming the boundary between France and Italy.

The Argentière, Mont Genèvre and Mont Cenis passes are in the Cottian Alps; the Petit Saint-Bernard pass in the Greek Alps; the Grand Saint-Bernard, Simplon and Saint-Gothard passes in the Pennine Alps; the Splügen and Brenner passes in the Rhaetian Alps; and the Tarvis pass in the Carnic Alps; they are also known as the Julian Alps.

Mont Blanc is the highest point, dominating the whole of Europe. From this central point, the Alps decrease in elevation, either towards the Adriatic or the Mediterranean.

The mountain system dominated by Mount Viso is the source of the Var, which flows into the Mediterranean, the Durance, which flows into the Rhone, and the Po, which crosses all the plains of Italy, collecting all the water from this slope of the Alps and part of the Apennines. The Rhine, the Rhone, the Inn, one of the largest tributaries of the Danube, and the Ticino, one of the largest tributaries of the Po, all have their source in the mountain system dominated by the Gotthard. The Adda, which flows into the Po, and the Adige, which flows into the Adriatic, have their source in the mountain system dominated by Mount Brenner. Finally, in the Cadorian Alps, the Piave, Tagliamento and Isonzo rivers have their sources; the Brenta and Livenza have theirs at the foot of these mountains. The Po, Rhone, and Rhine have 120 to 200 leagues of course; they are, for the width, depth, and rapidity of their channels, very large rivers; but the Danube, which has 555 leagues of course and receives 120 navigable rivers, is the largest river in Europe. The Nile, in Africa, is even bigger: 800 leagues long.

III. Of the Apennines.

The Apennines are mountains of the second order, much smaller than the Alps; they cross Italy and separate the channels that flow into the Adriatic from those that flow into the Mediterranean. They begin or end the Alps, at the San Giacomo hills, near Mount Ariolo, the last of the Alps. San Giacomo and the Cadibona pass, near Savona, are even lower, so that this point is the lowest part of the Alps and the lowest part of the Apennines. From their first pass, that of Cadibona, the Apennines are always rising, by a movement inverse to that of the Alps, to the center of Italy. They are divided into the Ligurian Apennines, the Etruscan Apennines, the Roman Apennines and the Neapolitan Apennines.

The Ligurian Apennines begin at Monte San Giacomo, at the source of the Bormida, near Savona; they end at Monte San-Pellegrino, on the borders of Tuscany; they are fifty leagues long. They separate the States of Genoa from Montferrat and the Duchy of Parma. The upper ridge is three to twelve leagues from the sea, and twelve to twenty from the Po. Mount San-Pellegrino is 800 toises above the sea.

The waters of the Ligurian Apennines descend, on one side, into the Mediterranean by extremely rapid torrents, which form a large number of small valleys, and, on the other side, they descend into the Po valley by torrents of lesser rapidity. Of the torrents that flow into the Mediterranean, the Magra is the largest; it flows into the Mediterranean near La Spezia, and is twelve leagues long.

During the 1796 campaign, there was no path along the seashore that could be used by artillery. To get from Nice to Genoa, the guns had to be transported on mountain carriages, and when the campaign began, the crews had to arrive by sea at Savona, from where they could enter Italy via the Cadibona pass, which was made easily accessible to vehicles. At the time, there was only one road leading from the sea into the interior of Italy: the Genoa road, or causeway of Bocchetta. By 1812, however, the road from Nice to Genoa, known as the path of Corniche, had been opened up for thirty leagues, providing easy communication between the two cities. The causeway from Savona to Alexandria via Cadibona, and that from La Spezia to Parma, opened up two other outlets from the ports of Savona and La Spezia to the Po; Savona is twenty leagues from the Po, Genoa fifteen, and La Spezia twenty-four.

The Etruscan Apennines begin at the San-Pellegrino mountain and end at Mount Coronaro; they are thirty leagues long, gradually rising and approaching the Adriatic. Mount Cornaro is ten leagues from Rimini, port of the Adriatic, and forty leagues from Orbitello, port of the Mediterranean. These mountains separate Tuscany from the duchies of Parma and Modena, and the legations of Bologna and Romagna. The Arno and Ombrone are the main rivers that flow from the top of these mountains into the Mediterranean; they don't flow perpendicular to the sea, they meander and are considerable. On the other side, the waters flow into the Adriatic in fast, short torrents. During the Iralia campaign in 1796, two causeways crossed the Apennines and connected the Mediterranean to the Adriatic. The Modena causeway, known as the Garfagnana causeway, led to Lucca and crossed Mount Cimone, 1,000 toises high above the sea. In 1812, work began on a road from Florence to Rimini.

The Roman Apennines begin at Mount Coronaro and end at Mount Velino; their extent is sixty leagues. They divide the peninsula down the middle between the two seas, and are never more than twelve or fifteen leagues apart, making the peninsula thirty leagues wide.

Mount Velino is the highest point in the Apennines, 1,300 toises above the sea. At this point, the Apennines slope down to the tip of the Kingdom of Naples. This mountain is covered with snow all summer long. Thus, in the space of one hundred and thirty leagues from the Cadibona pass, the Apennines have gradually risen to 1,300 toises.

Mount Velino is the highest point on the Italian peninsula. It is eighteen leagues from Rome and eighteen leagues from Pescara, the opposite point on the Adriatic. Mount Gennaro, near Rome, is 675 toises high; Mount Radicosa, 455 toises.

Of the waters of the Roman Apennines that flow into the Mediterranean, the main river is the Tiber, which receives forty-two torrents and has a course of fifty leagues. It meanders parallel to the Apennines and rises on the summit of the Etruscan Apennines. The Roman Apennines pour their waters into the Adriatic through small valleys perpendicular to the sea. Three causeways cross the Roman Apennines and connect the Mediterranean to the Adriatic: 1) from Fano to Perugia and Rome; 2) from Ancona to Foligno, Spoleto and Rome; 3) from Pescara to Terni and Rome.

The Neapolitan or Vesuvius Apennines run seventy leagues between the Adriatic and the Mediterranean, and divide the peninsula almost equally from Mount Velino to Mount Caruso. Vesuvius is 584 toises high. These mountains are constantly descending. The upper crest of the Neapolitan Apennines is fifteen leagues from Naples and eighteen from the Adriatic. The valleys meander. The main rivers are the Sacco and the Volturno. From Mount Caruso, the Apennines divide into two branches: one enters Calabria, and the waters from its peaks flow into the Mediterranean on one side, and into the Gulf of Taranto on the other; the summit of this chain approaches the Mediterranean and ends near Reggio, after covering a distance of fifty leagues. The other branch enters the country of Bari and Otranto, separating the waters flowing into the Adriatic from those flowing into the Gulf of Taranto; it covers a distance of thirty leagues. All these mountains follow the same constant law, and always go downhill.

Thus, the upper crest of the Apennines, from Cadibona to the Sicilian Sea, can be traversed in the space of two hundred and eighty leagues. This is the route of the upper Apennine chain or slopes which drain into the Mediterranean on one side and the Adriatic on the other. Various branches run along and meet the two seas, but they are all subordinate to the main chain.

IV. Of the great plain of Italy.

The great plain of northern Italy lies between the Alps, the Apennines, and the Adriatic. It is made up of the Po valley and the valleys that flow into the Adriatic north and south of the Po. The waters of all these valleys communicate, or can communicate, with each other. This plain includes Piedmont, Lombardy, the duchies of Parma and Modena, the legations of Bologna, Ferrara and Romagna, and all the states of the Republic of Venice. It is one of the richest in the world, covered with large and numerous cities, and supports a population of five or six million.

The Po, called Eridan by the Greeks, is a sea because of the large number of rivers whose waters it receives: on the left bank, it receives all those falling from the upper crest of the Rhaetian, Pennine and Cottian Alps; on the right bank, all those flowing from the Maritime Alps and all the waters of the Ligurian Apennines. At Turin, it receives the Dora, which rises on Mont Genèvre; at Chivasso, the Dora Baltea, which flows down from Mont Saint-Bernard; between Casale and Valenza, the Sesia, which flows down from the Simplon; at Pavia, the Ticino, which flows down from the Saint-Gothard; between Piacenza and Cremona, the Adda, which flows down from the Brenner; near Borgotorte, the Oglio; a little further on, the Mincio. On the right bank, it receives the Tanaro, which rises on the Col de Tende and flows into the Po; near Bassignana, between Valenza and Alexandria, this river then receives the Stura, which flows down from the Argentière pass, and the Bormida, which flows down from the heights of Bardinetto and San-Giacomo. Above Castelnovo, the Po receives the Scrivia, which descends from the Bocchetta pass; near Piacenza, the Trebbia, which rises on the Torriglia pass, three leagues from Genoa; near Colorno, the Taro; near Guastalla, the Crostolo; near Mirandola, the Panaro; opposite Mantua, the Secchia; near Ferrara, the Reno; all these rivers have their source in the Ligurian Apennines.

It flows into the Adriatic at seven mouths, ten leagues from Ferrara, ten leagues from Venice, two leagues from the mouths of the Adige, eight leagues from Ravenna; its course ranges from 130 to 135 leagues; its width is 130 toises opposite Turin, 200 toises opposite Piacenza, 300 toises at Borgoforte, 600 toises at Ponte-di-Lagoscuro, opposite Ferrara. Raised above the ground, it slopes at a rate of one foot in every 1,000 toises. It is enclosed by dikes which, in some places, are up to thirty feet high. Like Holland, this beautiful plain is in danger of being submerged by water.

The rivers that enter the Po from the right bank, especially from the Taro, cause frequent flooding and a large number of accidents and disorders which gives way to great questions of hydraulics, and made Italian engineers more expert in this science than any other scholars in Europe. The water system has often given rise to wars between Parma, Modena, Bologna, and Ferrara. When the waters of the Po rise rapidly to more than three feet above their ordinary level, whole populations flock to the dykes to watch over them. These alerts often occur two or three times a year, and sometimes several years go by without one.

The tributaries on both banks of the Po differ in that those on the left bank are rivers, and those on the right bank are torrents, because those on the left bank descend from the Alps, where there are glaciers, and therefore never dry up, and those on the right bank descend from the Apennines, mountains of the second order, very steep, from which the waters flow rapidly during the rainy season.

The rivers north of the Po that flow into the Adriatic are the Adige, which rises at the foot of the Brenner; the Brenta, which rises in the last knolls of the Alps near Trento; the Piave, Livenza and Lagliamento, which rise in the Cado-Rian Alps; and the Isonzo, which rises at the foot of the Col de Larvis.

All these rivers flow into the Adriatic or into the Venetian lagoons. Only the Adige remains a constant river, while the others are torrents.

The valleys to the south of the Po include, successively from north to south, the Senio, the Ronco, the Savio, the Luso or Rubicon, and together they form the provinces of Romagna. These torrents, which are of little importance, can be forded almost all year round, apart from the high-water season; they take their sources in the Etruscan Alps, and throw themselves in the Adriatic nearby Fusignano, Faenza, Cesenza, and Rimini. All the Comacchio lakes, on the right bank of the Po, are discharges and filtrations of the Po, whose waters extend as far as Ravenna.

V. Borders of Italy from the side of land.

France borders Italy from the mouth of the Var on the Mediterranean to the Little St. Bernard. From the foot of the Saint-Bernard, on the French side, at the village of Séez, to the Barcelonnette valley, there are thirty leagues; on the Italian side there are only eighteen, measured from the Aosta valley to the Stura valley, opposite the Argentière pass.

From the Stura, however, it is necessary to cross the high Alps to descend into Nice county and follow the banks of the left bank of the Var. An army that crosses the Var from Italy has entered France; but an army that crosses the Var from France has not entered Italy; it is only on the reverse side of the Maritime Alps; it must cross the high ridge of the Alps to descend into Italy: the obstacle remains still remains entirely whole.

The Var is a torrent fordable for a part of the year; it flows in mountains where all ways are impracticable to artillery. An army could therefore enter Italy, by way of the Var, only by the bottom of that river, to first take Nice. So that the Var may be a line of some consideration, there should be a fort at the mouth, which would block the waters, destroy the fords, and give way to floods. The Var crossed, and the army mistress of the county of Nice, it must, to enter Italy, cross the Tende pass, or continue to go along the sea up until Oneille, to cross the Alps at Ponte-di-Nava and reach the Tanaro, or go along the sea until Savona and Genoa, to cross them at Cadibona and at Bocchetta. To oppose all these projects, the best line to take is that of Roja: the right of that line extends to the Tende pass at Saorgio, the center of Saorgio at Breglio, and the left from Breglio to the sea. The location of Saorgio and a little fort on the heights of Breglio would serve to support that line and would keep the carriageway that leads to Tende. That line forced, the River of Genoa offers many others, such as the ridges of the Monte-Grande, which cover San-Remo. But then the Tende pass remains outside that line and must be defended by the stronghold of Coni and by a corps placed in Piedmont. The stronghold of Genoa is important as a support point of that border, and as a great maritime port.

If a French army wants to enter Italy from the Cottian and Greek Alps, it must cross by one of these five passes: the Argentière, of 900 toises of elevation, La Croix, Montgenèvre, Mont Cenis, of 1,060 toises of elevation. If that superior ridge belongs to the King of Italy, fortified towers must be built on the peaks to protect the little strongholds which would defend these passes. From the Argentière pass, a French army must come out onto the three valleys of Stura, Maira, and Bellino; from the La Croix pass, in the valleys of San-Martino, from Pragelato; from the Mont Cenis pass, in the valley of Susa; from that of the Little Saint Bernard, in the valley of Aosta. The King of Sardinia had the forts of Demonte, Château-Dauphin, Exilles, Fenestrelle, la Brunette, and the fort of Bard, which closed these entries from a second line, as well as the strongolds of Coni, Ormea, Ceva, closed the entries of the Maritime Alps.

The borders of the States are either mountain ranges, great rivers, or great and arid deserts. France is thus defended by the Rhine, Italy by the Alps, Egypt by the deserts of Libya, Nubia, and Arabia. Of all these obstacles, deserts are without a doubt the most difficult to overcome; mountains hold the second rank; great rivers merely hold the third.

On the borders of Switzerland, four main mountain passes are used for communications between the two States: those of the Saint-Bernard, 1,240 toises high; the Simplon, 1,050 toises high; the Saint-Gothard, 1,060 toises high, and the Splügen, 988 toises high. The Simplon leads to the right bank of the Lake Maggiore and the Ticino. From Domo d’Ossola to the Lake Maggiore, there are several strongholds easy to fortify, among others the castle of Arona. The Ticino forms a last line against the aggressions of France and also against an army that would come out of the Simplon; the right is flanked by the Lake Maggiore and the mountains, the left by the Po, the Stradella defile, that communicate without interruption with the Ligurian Apennines. The Ticino is rapid, large. The bridge of Pavia, entrenched and well guarded, and a good fort at the Stradella defile, would cover Italy, from the side of France. The Saint-Gothard is impracticable to artillery. From the Saint-Gothard to the lake of Lugano, and between Lake Maggiore and that of Como, there are a great number of strongholds that offer good lines, and where a few forts of some value would have a great effect; they existed in the past. In any case, you must be master by way of armed boats of all the lakes. The fourth pass, that of Splügen, leads to Valtellina. Valtellina no doubt geographically belongs to Italy, its waters belong to the Po valley; they flow into it by way of the Adda. The Adda forms the lake of Como; but this lake is surrounded by impracticable mountains, such as all those of the Bergamasque or Brescian Alps.

On the Austrian side, Italy borders on Tyrol, Carinthia and Carniola. This border is the weakest; it is also the most extended. On the Tyrolean side is the Brenner Pass, 730 toises high, which leads to Trent. From Trent, three roads open into Italy: one follows the Chiese, Lake Idro, and arrives at Brescia; the stronghold of Rocca-d'Anfo closes it perfectly; the other runs along the left bank and opens at Verona; the Adige serves as a line against this outlet; the third follows the Brenta and opens at Bassano, on the left bank of the Brenta. On the Carinthian side is the Tarvis Pass, 730 toises high; finally, on the Carniola side is the line of the Isonzo.

In 1796, one could, from France, cross the Alps to enter Italy. First, by the road of the Col de Tende; at its outlet one found the stronghold of Coni. Second, by the Col de l'Argentière; but this way was impracticable for artillery; the stronghold of the Pas de Suse and Fort Demonte defended the Stura valley. Third, from Grenoble and Briançon, by Mont Genèvre; but this road was impracticable for artillery, and at its outlet in Piedmont were Fenestrelle and Exilles. Fourth, by Savoy, Chambéry and Mont Cenis; but, from Lans-le-Bourg to the Novalaise, the road was impracticable for vehicles, and the valley was closed by the fortresses of Suse and Brunette. Fifth, by the Tarentaise, one arrived at the foot of the little Saint-Bernard. Sixth through Valais, to that of the great Saint-Bernard; but the passage of these two mountains was not suitable for vehicles, and the fort of Bard, which closed the valley, intercepted the passage in the plain. Seventh, by way of the Valais a road reached Brigg, where it was no longer passable for carts. The passage of the Simplon was not possible, nor that of the Saint-Gothard or that of the Splügen.

In 1812, all these fortresses were demolished: Coni, Demonte, la Brunette, Susa, Bard, Exilles and four great roads had opened the Alps to all kinds of vehicles, without them even having to stop, namely: those of the Corniche, of Mont Genèvre, of Mont Cenis, of Simplon. These roads, which cost so many millions and years of work, are considered the most beautiful works of this kind that have come from the hands of men.

The lines which an Italian or French army must take to oppose an invasion from the German side are those that follow the right bank of the rivers which flow into the Adriatic north of the Po; these lines cover the whole valley of the Po, and from then on close the peninsula and cover upper, middle, and lower Italy. These are the best lines of defense. Those that follow the rivers which flow into the Po cut the valley of the Po and uncover middle and lower Italy; two armies maneuvering on both banks of the Po are required.

The lines of defense that cover the Po Valley are those of the Isonzo, the Tagliamento, the Livenza, the Piave, the Brenta, and the Adige.

The line of the Isonzo covers the whole of Italy, since it is its limit. From Tarvis to Caporetto, this river flows through impassable mountains. At Caporetto is the carriageway which, by Cividale, goes to Udine. In the third part of this line, from Gorizia to the mouth of the Isonzo in the sea, there are the outlets of Gradisca, Gorizia, Monfalcone. The Venetian stronghold of Palmanova serves as a depot and reserve for its defense; but this line is turned by the carriageway of Pontebba, which descends to Osoppo and the Tagliamento: it is therefore necessary to occupy, by a good stronghold, a position near Tarvis which would intercept the two causeways, that of Pontebba and that of the Isonzo.

The line of the Livenza can be turned to its left, from Sacile to the mountains. The Livenza is not fordable; it is marshy, although not very wide.

The line of the Piave is defended by the forest of Montello, and from there to the sea it is covered by impassable marshes; but the Piave is frequently fordable; to make this line of any importance, it would be necessary to narrow its bed so that it never would be, and to provoke floods there. This line has the advantage of covering Venice.

The line of the Brenta, on the left of Bassano, is closed by easily defended gorges; from Bassano to Brondolo, the Brenta is fordable.

The great road from Munich to Verona, which passes the Brenner and crosses the Adige, turns these five lines; so that, if the enemy had an army corps in Bavaria and the Tyrol, it would arrive by this road on the right bank of the Adige, and would cut off, from Italy, the army occupying one of these lines.

The Adige is the sixth and last line that covers the valley of the Po; it is without comparison the best. This river is wide, fast and deep, never fordable; it is 60 toises wide at Verona. However, this line leaves uncovered the Venetian country and the city of Venice. By occupying the lake of Garda by a few gunboats, and the carriageway of La Chiese by the fort of Rocca-d'Anfo, the line of the Adige perfectly covers the rest of Italy. The mountains of the Brescians, Bergamasques, Milanese, are impassable. The enemy could only penetrate by the Simplon, if he were master of Switzerland. This line is divided into three parts: the first, between the lake of Garda and the plateau of Rivoli; the second, from Rivoli to Legnago; the third, from Legnago to the sea. The first is defended by the heights of Monte-Baldo and the stronghold of the Corona; the enemy cannot penetrate there with artillery; he must be master of the plateau of Rivoli to be able to receive his artillery, which, in this case, he would bring down by the causeway which runs along the left bank of the Adige, from Roveredo. The forts of Verona and the part of the city on the left bank must necessarily be occupied as bridgeheads. The small stronghold of Legnago serves as a bridgehead in the center of the line. From Legnago to the sea there are many marshes; one can, by taking advantage of the waters of the Adige, the Brenta and the Po, arrange a means of communicating with the stronghold of Venice. By cutting a dike of the Adige lower than Porto-Legnago, one floods all the ground between this river and the Po; one unites their waters with those of the Molinella: then the whole country, from Legnago to the sea, is impassable. By opening the lock of Castagnaro, the White Canal is filled with the waters of the Adige. This canal flows into the Po: it then forms a second line, in case the enemy has crossed the Adige between Castagnaro and the sea. The best way to defend the Adige is to camp on the left bank, on the heights of Caldiero, behind the Alpone, the right supported by the marshes of Arcole, with two bridges at Ronco, the left supported by beautiful heights, which it would be easy to entrench in a few weeks: then the whole part of the line from Rivoli to Ronco is covered, and, if the enemy wants to cross the Adige between Arcole and the sea, we are in a position to fall on its rear.

The Mincio is the first line that cuts the Po Valley. This line demands that one be master of Lake Garda and of the fortress of Rocca-d'Anfo. The Mincio is a river of very little width, it is a slight obstacle in itself; but, by blocking all the irrigation channels that impoverish it, it ceases to be fordable. The places of Peschiera and Mantua constitute the principal force of this line. Mantua defends the Serraglio and the part of the Mincio up to the Po. The hills of Monzambano and Volta, on the right bank, dominate the left bank; those of Salionze and Valeggio, on the left bank, dominate the right bank. A small citadel on the left bank, at the hillock of Valeggio, another on the hill of Salionze, the reestablishment of the small stronghold of Goito, covered by floods, would make this line rather good; the army that would occupy it would be required to leave a detached corps on the right bank of the Po.

The Oglio is often fordable; it has the disadvantage, on its source and on its left, of approaching the Adda; so that an army which would be placed on the right bank of this river would be easily cut off from Milan, which frequently happened in the wars of Venice and the Visconti. But, if the retreat of this army had to be made by the right bank of the Po, this line could, in that case, be of some use.

The Adda is sometimes fordable. Permanent or field fortifications are necessary at Lecco, Trezzo, Cassano, Lodi, as well as armed boats at Como. The stronghold of Pizzighettone supports the lower part of the line; a stronghold at Piacenza, with a bridge over the Po, would be the complement of this line. In the absence of this stronghold, a second army is necessary on the right bank of the Po.

The Ticino is a good line; the river is wide, deep, and rapid; but it is necessary to occupy Pavia as a bridgehead. A stronghold at Stradella would be the complement of this line to stop the enemy on the right bank of the Po. In the absence of this stronghold, an army is needed on the right bank of the Po. Stradella is the narrowest point of the Po valley; a fort would block it entirely; there end the last hillocks of the Ligurian Apennines; the valley is not as wide as a cannon range; the Po flows to their foot. The cannon of Stradella would beat everywhere. Higher, lower than this point, the valley is two, three, or four leagues wide, and a fort such as that of Stradella would not close it.

VI. Capitals of Italy.

Italy, isolated within its natural limits, separated by the sea and by very high mountains from the rest of Europe, seems to be called upon to form a great and powerful nation. But it has in its geographical configuration a capital vice, which may be considered as the cause of the misfortunes it has suffered and of the fragmentation of this beautiful country into several monarchies or independent republics: its length is out of proportion to its breadth. If Italy had been bounded by Mount Velino, that is to say, at about the height of Rome, and if all the part of land between Mount Velino and the Sea of ​​Ionia, including Sicily, had been thrown between Sardinia, Corsica, Genoa and Tuscany, it would have had a centre near all the points of the circumference. It would have had a unity of rivers, climate, and local interests. But on the one hand the three large islands which make up a third of its surface area, and which have interests, positions, and are in isolated circumstances; on the other hand that part of the peninsula south of Mount Velino and which forms the kingdom of Naples, are foreign to the interests, the climate, the needs of the whole Po valley. Thus, while the Gauls crossed the Cottian Alps six hundred years before Christ and established themselves in the Po valley, the Greeks landed on the southern coasts by the Ionian Sea and founded the colonies of Tarentum, Salento, Crotona, Sabarte, States which were known under the generic name of Magna Graecia. Rome, which subjugated both Gaul and Greece, placed all Italy under its laws. A few centuries after Christ, when the residence of the emperors was transferred to Constantinople, the barbarians crossed the Isonzo and the Adige and founded various States; the throne of the powerful Lombard monarchy was established at Pavia. The fleets of Constantinople maintained the imperial domination on the coasts of the southern part. Later, the kings of France often penetrated into Italy by the Cottian Alps, and the emperors of Germany by the Julian and Rhaetian Alps. The popes opposed them to each other and maintained themselves by this policy in a kind of independence, and by the favor of the divisions and anarchy which were established in all the cities.

But, whereas the south of Italy is, by its situation, separated from the north, Italy is a single nation. The unity of language, of customs, of literature, must, in a more or less distant future, finally unite its inhabitants in a single government. To exist, the first condition of this monarchy will be to be a maritime power, in order to maintain supremacy on its islands and to be able to defend its coasts.

Opinions are divided on the location which would be most suitable to be the capital. Some designate Venice, because the first need of Italy is to be a maritime power. Venice, by its situation sheltered from all attack, is the natural deposit of the commerce of the Levant, of Germany. It is, commercially speaking, the point closest to Turin, to Milan, more than Genoa itself; the sea brings it closer to all points of the coasts. Others are led by history and ancient memories to Rome. They say that Rome is more central; that it is within reach of the three large islands of Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica; that it is within reach of Naples, the largest population of Italy. That it is at a good distance from all points of the attackable frontier, whether the enemy presents himself by the French, the Swiss, or the Austrian border: Rome is at a distance of one hundred and twenty to one hundred and forty leagues. That, the border of the Alps forced, it is safeguarded by the border of the Po, and finally by the border of the Apennines. That France and Spain are great maritime powers, that they do not have their capital placed in a port. That Rome, near the coasts of the Mediterranean and the Adriatic, is able to provide quickly, with economy, by the Adriatic, and by both Ancona and Venice, to the supply and defense of the border of the Isonzo and the Adige. That, by the Tiber, Genoa, Villefranche, it can provide for the needs of the border of the Var and the Cottian Alps. That it is fortunately located to worry, by the Adriatic and the Mediterranean, the flanks of an army that would cross the Po and engage in the Apennines without being mistress of the sea. That, from Rome, the deposits a great capital contains could be transported to Naples and Tarentum to deny them to a victorious enemy. That finally Rome exists, that it offers many more resources for the needs of a great capital than any city in the world. That it has above all the magic and nobility of its name. Therefore, although it does not have for itself all the desirable qualities, Rome is, without a doubt, the capital that the Italians will one day choose.

Italy, by its population and its wealth, can maintain 400,000 men of all arms, independently of the navy. The war in Italy requires less cavalry than in Germany; 30,000 horses would be sufficient. The artillery arm should be numerous to provide for the defense of the coasts and all maritime establishments. Horses are rare in Italy; however, Naples, Tuscany, and Rome provide esteemed breeds. Albania, Switzerland, Germany, Africa should provide for them. The stud farms, which have been sacrificed for the good of agriculture and the profit given by horned beasts, would be reestablished. In the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, the various powers of Italy maintained 100,000 horses. At this time Tuscany alone had an army of 100,000 men, because armies never went more than a few marches from their cities. A military state of 400,000 men would be sufficient to provide three armies of 100,000 men for the defense of its borders in France, Switzerland, and Germany.

VII. Maritime means of Italy.

No part of Europe is so advantageously situated as this peninsula to be a great maritime power. It has, from the mouths of the Var to the Strait of Sicily, two hundred and eighty leagues of coast. From the Strait of Sicily to Cape Otranto, on the Sea of ​​Ionia, one hundred and thirty leagues. From Cape Otranto to the mouth of the Isonzo, on the Adriatic, two hundred and thirty leagues. The three islands of Corsica, Sicily, and Sardinia have five hundred and thirty leagues of coast. Italy, including its large and small islands, therefore has about twelve hundred leagues of coast; and are not included in this calculation those of Dalmatia, Istria, the mouths of Cattaro, the Ionian islands, which depended on Italy. France has one hundred and thirty leagues of coastline on the Mediterranean, four hundred and thirty leagues of coastline on the Ocean, and one hundred and thirty leagues of coastline on the Mediterranean. Spain, including its islands, has five hundred leagues of coastline on the Mediterranean and three hundred leagues of coastline on the Ocean, in sum eight hundred leagues. Thus Italy has a third more coast than Spain and half more than France. France has three ports whose cities have 100,000 souls of population. Italy has Genoa, Naples, Palermo and Venice, whose population is greater. Naples has 400,000 inhabitants. The opposite coasts of the Mediterranean and the Adriatic being not far from each other, almost the entire population of Italy is within reach of the coasts. Lucca, Pisa, Rome, Ravenna, etc., three or four leagues distant from the sea, are capable of enjoying all the advantages of a maritime city and of providing numerous sailors. Its three great military ports for armament and construction are: La Spezia for the Ligurian seas, Taranto for the seas of Ionia, and Venice for the Adriatic. Italy has all the resources in wood, hemp, and generally everything necessary for naval construction.

La Spezia is the most beautiful port in the universe; its harbor is even larger than that of Toulon; its defense by land and sea is easy. The projects drawn up under the Empire, and whose execution had begun, proved that with moderate expenditure the maritime establishments would be sheltered and enclosed in a place capable of the greatest resistance. Its shipyards would be within reach of receiving the woods of Corsica, Liguria, Tuscany, the irons of the island of Elba, the Alps and the entire Apennines. Its squadrons would dominate the seas of Corsica and Sardinia, of Vado and Villefranche.

Taranto is wonderfully situated to dominate Sicily, Greece, the Levant, and the coasts of Egypt and Syria. Under the Empire, plans were made for land fortifications and maritime establishments. The largest fleets are sheltered there from the winds and from any attack by a superior enemy.

Finally, in Venice, everything that is necessary already exists. The Venetians had only vessels with a draft of eighteen feet of water; but, under the Empire, a large number of vessels of the French model were built there, and by means of the work done on the Malamocco Canal, and with the help of camels, fully armed vessels, of the French model of 74, left there and fought with glory a few moments after their departure. A commission of engineers of roads and bridges, presided over by Mr. Prony, had drawn up a plan which, by means of a few million and a few years of work, would allow the vessels to leave fully armed without the help of camels.

Sicily, Malta, Corfu, Istria, Dalmatia, and especially Ragusa, offer ports and refuges to the largest squadrons. The ports of Genoa, Castellammare, Bari, Ancona, where ships of the first rank can enter, would be four secondary ports, either for building, or for arming and repairing, or supplying small squadrons.

Italy can raise and have for the service of the navy, even taking it in a period of decadence, 120,000 sailors. The Genoese, Pisan, Venetian sailors have been famous for several centuries. Italy could maintain three or four hundred warships, including a hundred or one hundred and twenty ships of the line above 74. Its flag would struggle with an advantage against those of France, Spain, Constantinople, and the four Barbary powers.

VIII. Situation of the various powers of Italy in 1796.

The King of Sardinia possessed Savoy, the County of Nice, Piedmont, and Montferrat. Savoy and the County of Nice had been taken from him in the campaigns of 1792, 1793, 1794, and 1795, and the French army occupied the upper ridge of the Alps. Piedmont and Montferrat, between Ticino, the States of Parma, the Republic of Genoa, and the Alps, formed a population of two million inhabitants, which, with the 500,000 of Sardinia, the 400,000 of Savoy and the County of Nice, brought the number of his subjects to about 3 million. In times of peace, the King of Sardinia maintained 25,000 men under arms; he had a revenue of 25 million. At the time of the campaign of 1796, he had, with the subsidies of England and extraordinary efforts, 60,000 men under arms, independently of the Austrians and the Neapolitans. His troops were hardened by a long war. The strongholds of Brunette, Susa, Fenestrelle, Bard, Tortona, Cherasco, Alexandria, Turin, were in good condition, well armed and perfectly supplied. These fortresses, situated at the passes of all the mountains, made it so his border was considered impregnable.

The Republic of Genoa, in the south of Piedmont, bordered by the sea and composed of the Riviera of Ponente, which has thirty leagues of coast, and of the Levante, which has twenty-five, had 500,000 inhabitants. It put, in times of peace, only 3,000 or 4,000 men under arms; but, in case of need, all the Genoese citizens became soldiers, and 8,000 or 10,000 men from the imperial fiefs and the valleys of the Fontana-Buona were regimented for the defense of the capital. The city of Genoa is very well fortified; the enclosure is four leagues in extent; but only a small number of points are attackable. The small fortress of Gavi defends the Bocchetta defile.

The Republic of Lucca, a small country extending along the Tuscan Sea, had a population of 140,000 souls and an income of 2 million. The Duchy of Parma, Piacenza and Guastalla had 500,000 inhabitants. It bordered on the Republic of Genoa, the Po, and the States of Modena. Its military strength was 3,000 men, its income 4 million.

Austrian Lombardy, separated from the States of the King of Sardinia by the Ticino, from Switzerland by the Alps, from the Duchy of Parma by the Po, and bordering on the East the states of the Republic of Venice, formed a population of 1,200,000 souls. Milan was the capital and had a citadel in good order. This part of Italy, belonging to Austria, had no military status, and even paid a tax to be exempt from recruitment. Austria had only one Italian regiment, the regiment of Strasoldo. Pavi, Milan, Como, Lodi, Cremona, Mantua, formed the subdivisions of Austrian Lombardy. The fortifications of Pizzighettone on the Adda were in poor condition. Mantua, although neglected, was a good stronghold.

The Republic of Venice had Austrian Lombardy to the west, the Cadorian Alps to the north, which separated it from Tyrol and Carinthia, and to the east Carinthia, Carniola, Istria, and Dalmatia. Its population was 3 millions of inhabitants. It could put 25,000 men under arms. Its fleet dominated the Adriatic. It had thirteen regiments of Slavonians; they were good soldiers. The Bergamasque, the Brescian, the Cremasque, the Polesine, the Veronese, the Vicentine, the Paduan, the Bassanese, the Trevisan, the Cadorin, the Feltrin, the Bellunese, and the Friuli, formed its States on the right bank of the Isonzo; Istria and Dalmatia, those on the banks of the Adriatic.

The Duchy of Modena included the Duchies of Reggio, Modena and Mirandola. It bordered on the Po, the Duchy of Parma, the Legation of Bologna and the Tuscan Apennines. It was governed by the last scion of the House of Este; the wife of Archduke Ferdinand of Austria, his daughter, was his heiress. The Duke of Modena was entirely Austrian. His military strength consisted of 6,000 men; he had an arsenal, an artillery depot and a large treasury. The population of his States amounted to 400,000 souls.

Tuscany, bordered by the Mediterranean, the Apennines, the republics of Genoa and Lucca, and the Papal States, had a population of one million. Archduke Ferdinand, brother of the emperor, reigned there. Its military strength was 6,000 men; its revenues, 15 million francs. It had a major commercial port, Livorno. The Grand Duke of Tuscany had recognized the Republic in 1795; he was neutral and at peace. Tuscany and the Republic of Venice were the only powers in Italy that were at peace with France.

The Papal States were bounded by the Po, Tuscany, the Adriatic, the Mediterranean and the Kingdom of Naples. They had a population of 2,500,000 souls, of which the three legations of Bologna, Ferrara and Romagna had 900,000; the Marches and the patrimony of St. Peter, including Rome, had 1,600,000. The port of Ancona, on the Adriatic, had a poor fortress. Cività Vecchia, on the Mediterranean, was regularly fortified. The Pope maintained 4,000 or 5,000 troops.

The kingdom of Naples, bordered by the Papal States and by the sea, had a population of 6 million, of which 4,500,000 on the continent and 1,500,000 souls in Sicily. The Neapolitan army was 60,000 men; the cavalry was excellent. The navy consisted of three ships of the line, and a few frigates.

Corsica belonged to France since the middle of the last century; its population was 180,000 souls; it was then under the rule of the English.

The island of Malta had a population of 100,000 souls; it belonged to the Order of Saint John of Jerusalem.

Thus the military strength of the powers of Italy was 160,000 men under arms, and in a short time it could easily be increased to 300,000. The Italian army was much stronger in infantry than in cavalry. Whatever was not Piedmontese or Slavonic was of little value.